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- Interdisziplinäre Arbeitsgruppe Berliner Akademiegeschichte im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (30)
- Interdisziplinäre Arbeitsgruppe Optionen zukünftiger industrieller Produktionssysteme (29)
- Interdisziplinäre Arbeitsgruppe Internationale Gerechtigkeit und institutionelle Verantwortung (24)
- Interdisziplinäre Arbeitsgruppe Bildkulturen (23)
- Interdisziplinäre Arbeitsgruppe EUTENA - Zur Zukunft technischer und naturwissenschaftlicher Bildung in Europa (21)
- Interdisziplinäre Arbeitsgruppe Normative Konstituenzien der Demokratie (21)
- Akademienvorhaben Berliner Klassik (20)
- Interdisziplinäre Arbeitsgruppe Frauen in Akademie und Wissenschaft (19)
- Akademienvorhaben Schleiermacher in Berlin 1808-1834, Briefwechsel, Tageskalender, Vorlesungen (18)
- Interdisziplinäre Arbeitsgruppe Zukunft des wissenschaftlichen Kommunikationssystems (16)
- Interdisziplinäre Arbeitsgruppe Globaler Wandel (15)
- Akademienvorhaben Altägyptisches Wörterbuch (14)
- Akademienvorhaben Jahresberichte für deutsche Geschichte (12)
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- BBAW (10)
- Akademienvorhaben Prosopographia Imperii Romani (9)
- Interdisziplinäre Arbeitsgruppe Sprache des Rechts, Vermitteln, Verstehen, Verwechseln (9)
- Initiative Qualitätsbeurteilung in der Wissenschaft (5)
- Akademienvorhaben Marx-Engels-Gesamtausgabe (3)
- Veröffentlichungen von Akademiemitgliedern (3)
- Akademienvorhaben Die alexandrinische und antiochenische Bibelexegese in der Spätantike (2)
- Zentrum Preußen-Berlin (2)
- Akademienvorhaben Schleiermacher - Kritische Gesamtausgabe (1)
- Drittmittelprojekt Proyecto Humboldt Digital (1)
- TELOTA - IT/Digital Humanities (1)
Vorarbeiten zur geologisch-petrographischen Untersuchung des Gebietes von Predazzo (Südtyrol)
(1901)
Über ein optisches Pyrometer
(1901)
Einleitung
(2024)
Der theologische Rationalismus war die letzte Gestalt der Aufklärungstheologie; seine Blütezeit erlebte er gleichzeitig und in Konkurrenz mit der u.a. von Schelling geprägten spekulativen Richtung und mit der teils mehr biblizistischen, teils mehr konfessionellen Theologie der Erweckung. Kennzeichen des Rationalismus war einerseits eine verstärkte historisch-kritische Quellenforschung, andererseits das Bemühen, Lehre und Praxis soweit möglich auf das auszurichten, was jenseits geschichtlicher Autoritäten der allgemeinen menschlichen Vernunft plausibel sei: die Existenz Gottes, die Unsterblichkeit der Seele und die Pflicht zu tugendhaftem Leben. Seit etwa 1840 verfiel der Rationalismus.
Este capítulo tiene por objetivo principal analizar los Principios FAIR y los retos de implementación encontrados al intentar aplicarlos en el Proyecto Humboldt Digital. El trabajo presenta una confrontación entre, por un lado, cuatro principios abstractos diseñados para definir y evaluar los resultados de la investigación en términos técnicos y, por el otro, las dificultades derivadas de la falta de infraestructura tecnológica y del contexto cultural, así como de la naturaleza propia de los registros archivísticos. Tras la introducción, el capítulo se divide en tres partes: en primer lugar, se revisa la función de la crítica cultural en las Humanidades Digitales y se lleva a cabo una relectura crítica de los Principios FAIR; en segundo lugar, se explica la conceptualización del proyecto; por último, se analizan los retos de implementación más relevantes. Se concluye poniendo en valor una aproximación crítica a la tecnología digital y recomendado la aplicación de los Principios FAIR junto con otros principios más sensibles al contexto cultural como la filosofía minimal computing, los Principios para el Desarrollo Digital o los Principios CARE.
Dieser Vortrag aus dem Jahr 2018 zeichnet nach, wie der Lebens- und Denkweg Friedrich Schleiermachers von seiner Zugehörigkeit zur deutsch-reformierten Kirche im preußischen Staat geprägt war, die als Kirche des regierenden Hauses Privilegien genoss, zugleich aber eine kleine Minderheit war, die stets bedacht blieb, ihre lehrmäßige und liturgische Eigenständigkeit gegenüber der lutherischen Mehrheitskirche zu behaupten. Schleiermacher blieb in seinen Überzeugungen reformiert, sah darin aber kein Hindernis zu voller kirchlicher Gemeinschaft mit dem Luthertum.
In wie fern spiegelt sich in Schleiermachers Darstellung und Deutung der Kirchengeschichte seine eigene reformierte Konfession wider? Die Reformation ging für Schleiermacher aus einem gemeinsamen Prinzip hervor, der Überzeugung von der in Christus gegebenen unmittelbaren Gottesgemeinschaft ohne kirchlich Vermittlung, weder durch priesterliche Interzession noch durch auferlegte gute Werke und Verdienste noch auch durch Lehramt oder Tradition, die das Verständnis der Schrift als Urkunde des Christentums vorgäben; bei der Geltendmachung dieses Prinzips stünden ihn Zwingli und die französischen humanistischen Biblizisten gleichberechtigt neben Luther. In Gestalten wie dem Theologen Ratramnus aus dem 9. Jahrhundert sieht Schleiermacher schon Positionen der späteren reformierten Konfession vorgebildet. Seine Ekklesiologie nimmt zwar die reformierte Unterscheidung zwischen sichtbarer und unsichtbarer Kirche auf, versteht aber etwas anderes darunter als Zwingli. Indem sie die Kirche (allerdings nicht unmittelbar eine der bestehenden verfassten Kirchen) zum fleischgewordenen Geist erklärt, hat sie zudem einen gewissen katholischen Einschlag.
Seit Beginn des Christentums sind Briefe und Korrespondenzen wichtige Quellen nicht nur für Kirchenverfassung, Theologie und Lehre, sondern auch für Mentalität, gelebte Frömmigkeit und die Alltagsgeschichte des Glaubens. Dieser Vortrag aus dem Jahr 2016 nimmt sich dementsprechend Schleiermachers Briefwechsel der Jahre 1808 bis 1810 vor: Was erfahren wir aus ihm über Hausgottesdienste, die damals viele Familien feierten, statt die öffentlichen Gottesdienste in der Kirche zu besuchen? Wie beging und erlebte man das heilige Abendmahl? Was teilt man einander aus dem eigenen Innersten mit?
Der Beitrag beschäftigt sich mit den Entwicklungen der Kommentierungspraxis in digitalen Brief- und Tagebucheditionen. Er untersucht dazu auch quantitativ die Kommentarpraxis anhand von TEI-XML-Daten und stellt sie teilweise Datenerhebungen aus gedruckten Editionen gegenüber. Darüber hinaus werden neue Entwicklungen und Möglichkeiten digitaler Editionen diskutiert, etwa zur Vernetzung, zum Austausch von Stellenkommentaren sowie zum Einsatz von Semantic-Web-Technologien.
Maschinelles Lernen und Künstliche Intelligenz in der Medizin - eine Einführung und ein Plädoyer
(2023)
Henrich Steffens als Naturphilosoph und Friedrich Schleiermacher als Geistes- und Kulturphilosoph und Theologe arbeiteten als Kollegen in Halle noch Hand in Hand. Jahrzehnte später gehörte Steffens zu den dissidenten Lutheranern in Breslau, die sich der staatlich verordneten Unionsagende verweigerten, während Schleiermacher Konzepte schrieb, um die Dissidenten für die Staatskirche zurückzugewinnen.
Ein satirisches Gedicht über den dänischen herrnhutischen Missionar Brodersen setzt neben dessen Originalität auch dem Missionswesen der Herrnhuter um 1800 ein interessantes Denken. Er mahnt zugleich im reformatorischen Sinne, sich nicht auf eigene Verdienste und Vorzüge zu verlassen, sondern nur auf die göttliche Gnade.
Als Deutschland 1817 das 300jährige Reformationsjubiläum feierte, beteiligten sich auch die zwei Berliner Theologieprofessoren Philipp Marheineke und Friedrich Schleiermacher daran, Schleiermacher mit Predigten und einer lateinischen akademischen Festrede, Marheineke ebenfalls mit einer Predigt und mit einer zweibändigen Reformations-geschichte Deutschlands. Die Beiträge zeigen, wie sich beide in ihrer Deutung der Reformation, ihrer historischen Einordnung des Protestantismus und ihrer Bestimmung des Verhältnisses zwischen Christentum einerseits, Staat, Nation und Gesellschaft andererseits unterschieden.
Für Schleiermacher ist Religion keine pädagogisch nützliche Mischung von Metaphysik und Moral, sondern eine eigene Dimension des Menschseins, Anschauung des Universums, Sinn und Geschmack fürs Unendliche; die von der Aufklärung favorisierte „natürliche Religion“ der allgemeinen, übergeschichtlichen Vernunftwahrheiten sei bloß eine Totgeburt, jede wirkliche, lebendige Religion dagegen eine unableitbare geschichtliche Individualität. Im Christentum sei Jesus Christus die Zentralgestalt, der Vermittler und Versöhner des Zwiespalts zwischen Endlichem und Unendlichem, an dem sich alle Religion abarbeite. Im Laufe seiner Entwicklung strebe das Christentum immer mehr zu Sozialgestalten ohne Hierarchie zwischen Priestern und Laien; in der Vollendung (den aber selbst der Protestantismus noch nicht erreicht habe) würden alle „von Gott gelehrt“ sein (Johannes 6,45).
Introduction – Reflections on Concepts of Health in Their Context. Contrary to what is often believed, health is not simply an objective condition that is easily determined and measured by strict medical criteria in clinical or scientific settings. It is a multifaceted phenomenon whose perception and understanding is influenced profoundly by people’s personal experience, cultural background and social environment. Correspondingly, there is great variety in concepts and definitions of health, both today and in a historical perspective. This collection of studies examines a number of such contextual factors that influence concepts, values and practices related to health, both present and past. It also makes a number of recommendations relevant to medical professionals, politicians, patients and other healthcare stakeholders as to how healthcare systems can be improved and enriched. It advocates a holistic approach to the understanding of health and disease, which involves embracing historical and philosophical concepts in medical reasoning, learning from health practices originated in other parts of the world and establishing interdisciplinary ways of thinking in biomedical research and clinical care.
Vernunft als Therapie und Krankheit: Medizinische Denkfiguren in der Geschichte der Philosophie
(2021)
Reason as Therapy and Illness: Medical Figures of Thought in the History of Philosophy. This paper tackles the question how philosophers have used medical metaphors, analogies or aspects of medical theories in their works. It discusses the idea of ancient Greek philosophy as a medicine of the soul, as well as the Christian surgery of the text-body and finally, how madness became a central problem for the philosophical conception of reason.
Health, Lifestyle and Responsibility: Historical Roots and Current Perspectives. The question to what extent health and disease are matters of individual and collective human responsibility was first raised and systematically discussed in ancient Greek medicine and philosophy in the 5th and 4th century BCE. This chapter discusses the consequences of these discussions for the definition of the aims and methods of the medical art, in particular the preservation and enhancement of health and the prevention of disease through lifestyle-related prophylactic and therapeutic measures. It also considers some of the implications of these ancient discussions for today’s theory and practice of preventative and lifestyle-related medicine.
Body Resonance: On the Neophenomenological Concept of Health. In contemporary philosophy, one can observe a trend of reorientation towards the (living) body (Leib), thereby declaring it a relevant topic of philosophical thinking. In this article, the so-called New Phenomenology will be discussed as an approach that aims to overcome the ignorance of health in Western philosophy. Following the ideas of Hermann Schmitz, the founder of New Phenomenology, the author introduces the concept of body resonance (Leibesgestimmtheit). In addition, some therapeutic tendencies within the neophenomenological scene are presented.
The Normative Practice of Health and Disease. „Health“ and „disease“ are frequently used terms with a high relevance for our everyday lives. Their spectrum of meaning is very extensive, but also ambivalent, because they are not adequately captured by a purely medical-scientific approach. The forms of knowledge associated with „disease“ and „health“ are rather diverse and allow different ways of looking at them side by side in a justified manner. Against this background, the relationship between scientific and life world approaches to these phenomena is of central importance, because this results in very different claims to an interpretative sovereignty of „health“ and „disease“. For these states not merely have an associated dimension, but an essentially practical-normative one, so that they cannot simply be reduced to a biological function or dysfunction. This becomes especially clear when the assignment of dysfunctional conditions to the concept of disease results in immediate options for action that are not simply limited to a chapter expansion of medical textbooks, but may lead to fundamental personal and social changes. For this side of „disease“ and „health“ reflects not only medical developments, but also normative attitudes in science and society. These in turn are also decisive for the communicative structure in the doctorpatient relationship.
The Art of Medicine and Philosophy: On the Genesis of a Basic Relationship in European Thought. Referring to the examples of Hippocrates and Socrates, in this essay, we establish the thesis that philosophy and medicine in Greek philosophy are to be regarded as strongly interdependent. In their view, interpretations of health and disease are intertwined with various contexts or settings such as living conditions, environment and climate, which has implications for the therapy of patients as an art of healing. The relevance and philosophical perspectives of this epoch for modern medicine and public health on a globalized planet are highlighted.
Concepts of Man – Concepts of Health: A Glimpse of Their Relationship in Antiquity With Relevance to Our Day and Age. Referring to ancient miraculous healing narratives, this article argues that concepts of health are inextricably intertwined with concepts of man. However, the relatively autonomous idea of medical treatments based on scientific reasoning is not an invention of modern secularization. It already existed in antiquity – even among people of faith. Gods and other religious authorities were regarded as mediating factors; they were not held responsible for diseases or cures. Examples from Christian and pagan traditions show that the interplay between ideas of man and concepts of health were extremely complex and diverse. Obviously, this was true already in antiquity – but it is even more evident in the present. Dualistic confrontations (e. g., pre-modern versus modern times, pre-scientific healing vs. academic medicine) are of little help to achieve universal health care and global health.
Health in Judaism: An Intercultural Discourse on Lack of Understanding and Misunderstanding in the Past and Present. Hardly any other religion pays as much attention to physical health as Judaism. Beginning with the Torah, the contrast between „healthy“ and „sick“ is already conceptualized and associated with the will of God and his plan of creation. In addition to the stereotype that Jews are sicker than their fellow human beings, there is an early claim that their state of health is better than that of other peoples. The religious writings of Judaism contain a large number of regulations that show how much the Greco- Roman doctrine of dietetics has been internalized, expanded and adapted to one’s own spiritual needs. There is broad consensus among today’s rabbis that health care, as described above all in the Talmud, was time-related and therefore should be based on today’s standards and findings while remaining in compliance with religious laws.
Byzantine Medicine as a Concept of Late Ancient Christian Healing Art. The great success of Greco-Roman medicine – in its main stream a brilliant combination of humoral pathology and dietetics canonized by Galen of Pergamon in the 2nd century CE – is probably the most surprising phenomenon of conceptual longevity in the history of Western culture and civilization. Its decline begins as late as in the early 17th century, when William Harvey describes the circulation of blood on the basis of the new experimental method, initiating not only the collapse of Galen’s theory of blood circulation, but also of humoral physiology and pathology in general. Only then, i. e., more than 1500 years after Galen and 2000 years after Hippocrates, new theoretical concepts of medicine appear on the horizon, gradually replacing medical thinking of antiquity. However, the evolution of Greco-Roman medicine was not a straightforward process; it was strongly influenced by changes in language and dramatic institutional and political changes after the separation of the Roman Empire at the end of the 4th century. Byzantine medicine in the East encompasses the common medical practices of the empire from about 400 to 1453 AD, compiling and standardizing medical knowledge and wisdom (iatrosophia) into new Greek textbooks.
Doing Health: Chinese and Other Perspectives. In ancient China, health was related to the individual person and their unique life. Both medical and philosophical texts testify to this: Maintaining vitality in the course of one’s own lifespan was a priority. Daily caring for one’s health revolved around Qi 氣 – a universal medium that is at the same time material and spiritual, emotional and neutral, unitary and diverse, as well as biological, psychological and physiological. Health thus becomes a verb, an act, a property to be preserved, a wavering and oscillating between pleasure and strength. Not least because of the pandemic, the demand for ‘traditional’ healing expertise rose worldwide. Against this background, early Chinese views on life are of unprecedented importance: From their perspective, a reorientation of public and global health policies seems inevitable.
The Āyurvedic Concept of Health. Āyurveda denominates the most important traditional medical system in South Asia. It looks back on an extensive corpus of literature from the past two thousand years. Since the 1980s, Āyurvedic medical practice has been increasingly spread outside South Asia. One reason for its success might be that Āyurveda places great emphasis on the maintenance of health, prevention, and regeneration. It also developed a broad and differentiated spectrum of diagnostic and therapeutic options, which, based on its own systematic paradigm, have been elaborated in detail over millennia. Āyurveda’s canonical texts not only provide systematic descriptions and definitions of the Āyurvedic understanding of health, they also contain detailed treatises regarding their relevance for everyday life and concrete medical instructions. This article provides basic information about the Āyurvedic understanding of health and contextualizes it within the everyday practice of both conventionally and Āyurvedically trained medical doctors in Germany.
Health in the Presence of the Ancestors: African Healers between Acceptance and Denial: A Case Study from South Africa. Health and well-being for all is the ambitious aim of the third of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations (UN). The no less ambitious definition of health of the World Health Organization (WHO) defines that health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. While in biomedical contexts treatment concentrates on physical healing, in the South African context the idea of healing and well-being subsumes a combination of physical, mental and social treatment and includes the ancestors and medicinal plants as an important category in the healing process. The ancestors in particular are representatives of the social past that reaches into the present. Healing as such has a multifaceted dimension even beyond the definition of health as proposed by the WHO.
The Amazon Basin: A Forgotten Cultural Landscape and Its Medicine. While the Amazon region’s ecological importance remains uncontested, its role as a cultural hotspot is largely unknown to most people. Yet, recent archeological findings revise the image of a lush but inhospitable landscape whose farm produce could not sustain advanced civilization. The indigenous people today are only a tiny remainder of a far bigger population that developed impressive agricultural and forest engineering skills – until it was wiped out by diseases brought in from Europe. In fact, modern medicine benefits greatly from biological knowledge of indigenous Amazonians even today. This resource could prove to be much more valuable than any short-term profit realized by slash-and-burn farming or the extraction of raw materials. Therefore, it is all the more important to protect this endangered region. Scientific research will not only help to rescue indigenous biomedical knowledge, it will also give back respect and dignity to socalled savages and their cultural achievements.
A Movement Culture as an Elementary Component of Social and Individual Health: What Can We Learn from the Aboriginal People of Australia? The Aboriginal People’s traditional movement culture is part of the oldest health concept known to man. What can we still save and take on for our society today?
Local Concepts of Health and Illness in Transition: Examples from Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea societies integrate traditional medicine, biomedicine, shamanic practices, and Christian healing techniques into herbal therapies. During an episode of illness, patients pragmatically apply different diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Concepts of person and body are central to indigenous illness etiologies and therapeutic practices. This contribution offers an insight into local concepts of health in Papua New Guinea, shows interfaces of local medical systems with biomedical approaches, and addresses the constant change to which medical systems are subject.
The Emergence of Modern Medicine and a New Understanding of Health and Disease: Rudolf Virchow and the Berlin Medical Society. At the beginning of the 19th century, the most important cities for medicine were Paris and Vienna. Berlin had less than 200,000 inhabitants and no university.Within a short period of time, this changed dramatically – and progress in medicine was a main catalyst. At the end of the 19th century, around two million people lived in Berlin and the city had become the world metropolis of modern medicine. This article examines the main causes and the central figures of this astonishing development. The driving force behind this advance was the rise of a new sort of medicine, i. e., a medicine based on evidence and science. Here, the Berlin Medical Society and its long-time president Rudolf Virchow played a central role. His concept of cellular pathology changed the definitions, methods and understanding of health and disease. Thus, it is no exaggeration to state that Virchow served as one of the most important founding fathers of modern medicine.
Evolutionary Medicine and its Holistic Concept of Health. Recent years have seen tremendous advances in our understanding of biological processes on genomic, cellular, and evolutionary levels.We owe this progress in great part to modern genetic techniques, steady improvements in imaging technology, and ground-breaking molecular tools.These findings not only helped turning Darwin’s hypothesis on the origin of species into an exact science, they also require us to integrate the complex interactions between biology, environment, and behavior into our ways of thinking. As a result, a new scientific rationale for a holistic concept of health and disease emerged: Evolutionary Medicine. The holistic approach of Evolutionary Medicine provides a new perspective on human biology: Why are people so frail, why do we get sick? Most importantly, it helps us comprehend how to better preserve health – as opposed to merely focusing on the treatment of diseases. For example, it is the misalignment between our evolutionary ‘old’ biology and our fast-changing, man-made environment (e. g., urbanization and nutrition with processed food) that helps to comprehend the emergence of civilization diseases.
The Concept of Health in Immunology and Infection Biology: Nine Opportunities for the Future. Looking at our individual immune systems, one might get the impression that health is mostly a personal matter. However, infection biology immediately points to the fact that health is the outcome of a global joint effort undertaken not only by all humans, but actually by all living beings. From the very large to the very small, health is based on a fragile balance and the successful collaboration of numerous single entities in a highly sensitive and complex network that connects our innermost world with that of the outside. Diseases have been with us forever, and in the course of time, they shaped our political and cultural community. Yet, they also are one of the main drivers of evolutionary development. In that capacity, they have promoted progress from simple life forms to complex beings, i. e., ourselves. Thus, health can also be seen as the product of innumerable tiny coincidences. Politics, academia and society should ensure prevention of future detrimental (or harmful) coincidences with such tragic outcomes.
One Health and Human-Animal Relationships: Do We Make Our Animals Sick? Since the very beginning of human-animal relationships, humankind took advantage of animals, as of nature in general. While many people today perceive themselves as animal-loving, in reality we tend to systematically deprive our farm animals and pets of their own nature and health. On our quest to perfect our exploitation of the animal world, we reached a dimension that started to profoundly worry veterinary professionals, animal welfare activists, and also the informed public. Ultimately, this destructive relationship leads to detrimental consequences for both parties: e. g., the extinction of wild animals, or the transmission of diseases from one to the other. However, one could argue that the suffering we cause to animals clearly and by far exceeds the harm caused by, for example, the animal-derived COVID-19. Is this a too provocative hypothesis? This article is an invitation to take a closer look at various facets of our current humananimal relationship with its consequences for both.
The Feeling of Being Healthy: New Perspectives on Modern Medicine. „Well-being“ and mental health have become increasingly important in the definitions of health since 1945. Has this also changed the feeling of being healthy? The chapter demonstrates that the intuitive feeling of being healthy when the body does not cause any discomfort has been increasingly delegitimized in the last hundred years. It identifies three developments as responsible for this shift: the establishment of the risk factor model, the reconceptualization of health as result of a constant process of rebalancing health and illness, and the emphasis on the subjective component of health.
Concepts of Health in Psychiatry. In talking about concepts of health in psychiatry,we are not talking about an essentialist concept of health, where there is some essential thing that health might be. There is a straightforward sense in which psychiatric „health“ simply means the absence of psychiatric disease. Marking out our concepts of health in psychiatry would then involve marking out the boundaries between normal and abnormal psychic phenomena. However, there is no single, neat concept of health in psychiatry; nor are there concepts of health that neatly cohere into one overarching theory of health. This is not because psychiatry is vague. It is because psychiatry reflects the complexity of the whole person.
Physician Health in the Workplace. Physicians are exposed to a variety of risks in their everyday work. There is an obvious risk, especially in view of the current pandemic, of contracting communicable diseases like COVID-19, HIV and Hepatitis C. The commercialization of healthcare and associated cost-saving measures – particularly in the field of human resources – lead to unhealthy workloads and, correspondingly, an increased risk of suffering from psychological disorders like burnout and depression. Scientific studies reveal a correlation between psychological stress and the quality of patient care. The health of medical personnel must be given high priority in the interest of both patients and those working in the healthcare system. This requires adequate funding with staffing that is appropriate to the patient and the task at hand, thus ensuring humane and high-quality patient care. In addition, physicians must be relieved of performing non-medical tasks, and their resilience must be strengthened through individual and operational measures.
Taming the European Leviathan: Health as Politics. A Research Project. This article outlines the research project „Taming the European Leviathan: The Legacy of Post-War Medicine and the Common Good“. It is funded by a Synergy Grant of the European Research Council and unites European researchers comparing health policies (from drug research to prevention) in West- and East-European countries, e.g., Bulgaria, Germany, France, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and the United Kingdom. The common goal is to provide a different perspective on post-war Europe, a perspective that emphasizes commonalities rather than differences.
Health Data as a Public Good. Routine health data, which are collected by health insurers and other agencies in the health care system, offer enormous potential for health monitoring and research. Germany has been slow to make such data available for socially beneficial purposes, partly due to concerns about privacy and data protection. Against this background, we discuss some of the most important potential uses of routine health data and call for a broader societal debate about the benefits, risks, and appropriate regulation of routine health data usage.We then review theWestern Australian Data Linkage System as an example of a data infrastructure that is characterized by high levels of stakeholder and patient involvement and a sophisticated method of privacy protection. While Germany does not need to copy this approach, we hope that the experiences of Western Australia and other countries will stimulate and inform the overdue debate about a modern, responsible, and sustainable approach to socially beneficial health data usage in Germany.
Prevention: The Concept of Preventive Risk Reduction, Illustrated by the COVID-19 Pandemic. Risk assessment and risk management based on the precautionary principle are instruments to protect humans and the environment against uncertain threats and risks. At the same time, however, trade-offs must always be made in order to maintain cultural, economic and social objectives and to honor the principle of proportionality. Notwithstanding the need for continuous risk reduction, society must distance itself from the idea that science can predict all dangerous events and developments and exclude them through preventive action. At best, risk analyses are able to identify the possible threats and uncover weaknesses in the system. In addition, risk assessments help us to make better decisions in the conflict of objectives between the secondary consequences of taking risks (such as exposure in the event of a pandemic) and the secondary consequences of the protective measures taken (economic, social, cultural consequences). In this sense, decisions about acceptability of risks or risk reduction measures always reflect a combination of scientific knowledge with balancing judgments.