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The introductory personal remarks refer to my motivations for choosing research projects, and for moving from physics to molecular biology and then to development, with Hydra as a model system. Historically, Trembley’s discovery of Hydra regeneration in 1744 was the begin¬ning of developmental biology as we understand it, with passionate debates about preformation versus de novo generation, mechanisms versus organisms. In fact, seemingly conflicting bottom-up and top-down concepts are both required in combination to understand development. In modern terms, this means analysing the molecules involved, as well as searching for physical principles underlying development within systems of molecules, cells and tissues. During the last decade, molecular biology has provided surprising and impressive evidence that the same types of mol¬ecules and molecular systems are involved in pattern formation in a wide range of organisms, including coelenterates like Hydra, and thus appear to have been “invented” early in evolution. Likewise, the features of certain systems, especially those of developmental regulation, are found in many different organisms. This includes the generation of spatial structures by the interplay of self-enhancing activation and “lateral” inhibitory effects of wider range, which is a main topic of my essay. Hydra regeneration is a particularly clear model for the formation of defined patterns within initially near-uniform tissues. In conclusion, this essay emphasizes the analysis of development in terms of physical laws, including the application of mathematics, and insists that Hydra was, and will continue to be, a rewarding model for understanding general features of embryogenesis and regeneration.
Die Erscheinungsform einer bestimmten Einzelsprache resultiert aus dem Nebeneinander und Zusammenwirken vertikaler und horizontaler Transmission von sprachlichen Merkmalen und umfasst demzufolge normalerweise neben Phänomenen, die über eine Kette früherer Sprechergenerationen ererbt wurden, auch solche, die aus anderen Sprachen entlehnt wurden. Deutliche Spuren einer komplexen Entstehungsgeschichte und der Interaktion verschiedener Sprachgemeinschaften lassen sich nicht erst im Altägyptischen oder gar erst in der Sprache des Neuen Reiches ausmachen, sondern bereits die frühesten schriftlichen Quellen aus der Zeit um 3000 v. Chr. erlauben – trotz ihrer Knappheit – überraschende Einblicke in die zeitgenössischen sprachlichen Verhältnisse. Bislang nur durch Sprachvergleich rekonstruierbare Entwicklungen sind nunmehr historisch nachweisbar, und das phonologische System einer dem Altägyptischen vorausgehenden und erheblich von ihm abweichenden Sprachstufe wird greifbar. Da das Voraltägyptische ein für eine afroasiatische Sprache eher untypisches Konsonanteninventar besitzt und sich zudem lexikalische Übereinstimmungen (nicht-genetischer Natur) mit indoeuropäischen Sprachen abzeichnen, erscheinen fundierte Hypothesen über die Herausbildung des Ägyptischen nicht länger unmöglich. Damit wäre das Ägyptische nicht nur die am längsten bezeugte Einzelsprache der Menschheitsgeschichte, sondern wohl auch die einzige, die von ihrer Entstehung bis zu ihrem Aussterben schriftlich dokumentiert ist.
The recent discoveries of the Czech mission show clearly that Abusir formed with Saqqara a single geographical unit in ancient Egypt and that the modern separation of them is outdated. Abusir seems to have played the crucial role as the last area into which the necropolis expanded after exhausting the space occuppied by the Archaic Cemetery of North Saqqara. In fact, it is the last vestige before the move from the area (including Dahshur and Meidum) to Giza at the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty. The tombs of Hetepi and lty, discovered and explored during the past few years, are probably the final representatives of genuine Third Dynasty tomb evolution in the Saqqara-Abusir area which drew its last breath at the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty. These tombs undoubtedly belonged to the upper class in the society of the day, though certainly not to members of the royal family. Their characteristics clearly show exactly what preceded later tomb development at Meidum, Dahshur and Giza.
Even a reductionist attempt to define scholarship is clearly fraught with difficulty, but an idealised historical lexicographer-cum-scholar must obviously have – inter alia and at the very least – a profound linguistic and textual knowledge of the language being documented, an ability to understand texts in their historical context and to analyse the meaning or function of lexical items as used in context, an ability to synthesise the results through generalisation and abstraction and to formulate them in a way that is both accurate, i.e. reflects actual usage, and user- or reader-friendly, i.e. is comprehensible to the user/reader. S/he must have encyclopedic or world knowledge and literary skills in order to understand general content words and explain their meaning and their semantic shifts perhaps over many centuries, and technical expertise to understand specialist terms and define their use in specific contexts, again perhaps over time. In respect of etymology s/he must not only have knowledge of older stages of the language and an ability to reconstruct unattested forms, but also knowledge of the other languages that have impacted on the language being documented, or at least familiarity with the scholarly historical dictionaries of those languages. That is a tall order indeed, impossibly tall for any one person today given today‘s demands on and expectations of lexicographers. Teams which include specialists in different areas or at least have access to consultants in such areas alongside generalists are needed if scholarly standards are to be met. The standard of scholarship is primarily a factor of the number and range as well as the knowledge and experience of the lexicographers, as is in large measure the pace of production. In this regard, it cannot be emphasised enough that scholarly historical lexicography of high quality is and will remain very time consuming.
Norsk Ordbok is a 12 volume academic dictionary covering Norwegian Nynorsk literature and all Norwegian dialects from 1600 to the present. The dictionary is to be completed in 2014, the year of the bicentenary of the Norwegian constitution. The collection of data started in 1930 and the editing of the dictionary started in 1946. In the 1990s the Norwegian language collections were digitized, and from 2002 onwards Norsk Ordbok has been edited on a digital platform which communicates with a system of relational databases for manuscript storage. These databases include digitized slip archives, a draft manuscript from 1940, glossaries from the period between 1600 and 1850, canonical dictionaries from the period 1870-1910, bibliography, local dictionaries, text corpus (90 mill. words) etc. The source material is linked together in a Meta dictionary (MD). The MD is an electronic index with headwords in standard spelling, and it represents the hub of the language collections, where the source material from the databases is linked to headword nodes. This MD in turn communicates with the editing system and the dictionary database. The electronic linking up of the source material with the dictionary entries secures that the interpretation of data and product of scientific research can be reproducible in a very easy way. This is important to a scholarly dictionary. Further, the MD index system enables us to set a relative dimension for each dictionary entry and to make a master plan for setting alphabet dimensions for the whole dictionary. This is important to all modern dictionary projects with limited resources. The digitized source material, the digital editing platform and the digital dictionary product also point forward to new ways of presenting the data, and they point forward to future lexicographical research. The paper will present the digital resources of the Norsk Ordbok 2014 project, developed in close cooperation with the scientific programmers at the Unit of Digital Documentation at the University of Oslo. It will focus on the Norsk Ordbok 2014 experience with working on a fully digitized editing platform for the last 10 years, and it will also comment briefly on how the developed tools and resources point forward into Norwegian lexicography in the future.
Even a reductionist attempt to define scholarship is clearly fraught with difficulty, but an idealised historical lexicographer-cum-scholar must obviously have – inter alia and at the very least – a profound linguistic and textual knowledge of the language being documented, an ability to understand texts in their historical context and to analyse the meaning or function of lexical items as used in context, an ability to synthesise the results through generalisation and abstraction and to formulate them in a way that is both accurate, i.e. reflects actual usage, and user- or reader-friendly, i.e. is comprehensible to the user/reader. S/he must have encyclopedic or world knowledge and literary skills in order to understand general content words and explain their meaning and their semantic shifts perhaps over many centuries, and technical expertise to understand specialist terms and define their use in specific contexts, again perhaps over time. In respect of etymology s/he must not only have knowledge of older stages of the language and an ability to reconstruct unattested forms, but also knowledge of the other languages that have impacted on the language being documented, or at least familiarity with the scholarly historical dictionaries of those languages. That is a tall order indeed, impossibly tall for any one person today given today‘s demands on and expectations of lexicographers. Teams which include specialists in different areas or at least have access to consultants in such areas alongside generalists are needed if scholarly standards are to be met. The standard of scholarship is primarily a factor of the number and range as well as the knowledge and experience of the lexicographers, as is in large measure the pace of production. In this regard, it cannot be emphasised enough that scholarly historical lexicography of high quality is and will remain very time consuming.
In the last decade, interaction between scholarly lexicography and the public has grown enormously. While in the old days, the lexicographer and in particular, the scholarly lexicographer, had a tendency to describe the lexicon from an ivory tower, in a way that was for the general public rather unaccessible, a change has been evident for some time now. Interaction with the general public is now more and more appreciated and is even being stimulated within the lexicographic community. This holds too for the Algemeen Nederlands Woordenboek (ANW), a project of the Institute for Dutch Lexicology in Leiden. The ANW is an online scholarly dictionary of contemporary Dutch. In its periodization it is the successor of the Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal (WNT), which was completed in 2001 and covers the vocabulary of the Netherlands and Flanders up to around 1976. The editorial staff of the ANW would like to create a dictionary that is suitable for different audiences, ranging from language professionals and other academics to pupils, students and language enthusiasts in general. Consequently, interaction with the public is very important to the ANW editorial staff. It is realised in various ways. First, each dictionary article offers users the option to give feedback. Second, the editorial staff uses questions and comments gathered on internet forums, such as Meldpunt Taal (launched in June 2010) and Neo-term. The ANW staff also approaches the public directly through Twitter, with items such as ‘neologism of the week’, facts about spelling and answers to questions about language that have been received. A relatively new initiative is to call upon the public in the search for information for the dictionary, such as synonyms, pictures and the earliest use of words. Language games and word polls are other ways to increase the interest and involvement of the general public in the ANW.
The Swedish Academy Dictionary (SAOB) is one of the big national dictionary projects started in the 19th century. SAOB is still in production – there are another two volumes out of 38 to printed before 2018. The structure inside the volumes is (of course) varied/varying. There are ten chief editors and five generations of editors involved in the project. In the 1980s the SAOB was OCR-scanned. The result was used for a webversion in the internet from 1997. The webversion is very frequently used but has a lot of shortcomings due to, among other things, a great typographic complexity and a scanning technology of the time. Now the editorial board is discussing the future: redigitalization (in China), updating of the webversion with new search tools, updating of the dictionary itself and some form of editing tool.