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Modern science, based on the laws of physics, claims validity for all events in space and time. However, it also reveals its own limitations, such as the indeterminacy of quantum physics, the limits of decidability, and, presumably, limits of decodability of the mind-brain relationship. At the philosophical level, these intrinsic limitations allow for different interpretations of the relation between human cognition and the natural order. In particular, modern science may be logically consistent with religious as well as agnostic views of humans and the universe. These points are exemplified through the transcript of a discussion between Kurt Gödel and Rudolf Carnap that took place in 1940. Gödel, discoverer of mathematical undecidability, took a proreligious view; Carnap, one of the founders of analytical philosophy, an antireligious view. By the time of the discussion, Carnap had liberalized his ideas on theoretical concepts of science: he believed that observational terms do not suffice for an exhaustive definition of theoretical concepts. Then, responded Gödel, one should formulate a theory or metatheory that is consistent with scientific rationality, yet also encompasses theology. Carnap considered such theories unproductive. The controversy remained unresolved, but its emphasis shifted from rationality to wisdom, not only in the Gödel-Carnap discussion but also in our time.
Die moderne Naturwissenschaft zeigt eindrucksvoll die große Reichweite des menschlichen Denkens - sie wirft aber auch die Frage nach ihrer menschengerechten Anwendung auf und führt an unüberwindliche Grenzen jeder Erkenntnis. Tragweite und Grenzen der Wissenschaft verweisen uns zurück auf uralte Fragen der Philosophie, zum Beispiel auf die Suche altgriechischer Denker nach den Urprinzipien der Natur oder auf das „Wissen vom Nichtwissen“ des Nikolaus von Kues. Der Blick auf 2500 Jahre Geschichte des Denkens über die Natur soll dabei helfen, die moderne Naturwissenschaft wieder in die großen Sinn- und Wertzusammenhänge menschlichen Lebens zu stellen.
Physical principles underlying biological pattern formation are discussed. In particular, the combination of local self-enhancement and long-range (“lateral”) inhibition (Gierer and Meinhardt, 1972) accounts for de-novo pattern formation, and for striking features of developmental regulation such as induction, spacing and proportion regulation of centers of activation in tissues and cells. Part I explains physical principles of spatial organisation in biological development. Part II demonstrates in mathematical terms that and how short-range activation and long-range inhibition are conditions for the generation of spatial concentration patterns. The conditions can be expressed in terms of ranges, rates and orders of reactions. These conditions, in turn, can also be derived by analysis of dynamic instabilities by means of Fourier waves, showing the neither obvious nor trivial relation between the latter approach and the theory based primarily on autocatalysis and lateral inhibition.
Aside from the increasing, impressive evidence on chemical identification of graded molecules involved, it is the capability of axons for approaching the target position from different aspects in a two-dimensional field which is per se a strong indication for the involvement of gradients. Targeting requires, in the target field, counter-graded effects, either by antagonistic gradients, or by a single gradient in each dimension exerting attractive effects at low, reverting to inhibitory (repulsive) effects at high concentrations. A further requirement for mapping is the modulation of the counter-graded effects by components of the growth cone itself which depends on the origin of the corresponding axon.Transduction and processing of graded signals in the navigating growth cones are proposed to be strongly enhanced by intra-growth-cone pattern formation. The concept also encompasses regulatory and branching processes including the formation of the terminal arbors.
In diesem Buch zeigt der Physiker und Biologe Alfred Gierer - er ist Direktor am Max-Planck- Institut für Entwicklungsbiologie - die Reichweite, aber auch die prinzipiellen Grenzen naturwissenschaftlichen Denkens auf. Beides wird nirgends so deutlich wie im Verhältnis der Biologie zur Physik: Hier stellen sich die Fragen, was Leben ist, wie es entstand und sich bis zur Höhe des Menschen entwickelte, wie der Reichtum der Formen zu verstehen ist und in welcher Beziehung das Bewußtsein, die “Seele”, zu einem wissenschaftlichen Verständnis der Lebensvorgänge steht. “Die Physik, das Leben und die Seele” informiert über diese wichtigen Zusammenhänge in allgemeinverständlicher Form und regt in besonderem Maße die Freude am kritischen Mitdenken an. Das Buch schlägt einen weiten Bogen von der Grundlagen der Physik und Logik über die neuen Erkenntnisse der Biologie bis zu der Frage, was uns die Naturwissenschaften über den Menschen und sein Bewußtsein lehren können - und was nicht.
Validity of physical laws for any aspect of brain activity and strict correlation of mental to physical states of the brain do not imply, with logical necessity, that a complete algorithmic theory of the mind-body relation is possible. A limit of decodability may be imposed by the finite number of possible analytical operations which is rooted in the finiteness of the world. It is considered as a fundamental intrinsic limitation of the scientific approach comparable to quantum indeterminacy and the theorems of logical undecidability. An analysis of these limits, applied to dispositions of future behaviour, suggests that limits of decodability of the psycho-physic relation may actually exist with respect to brain states with self-referential aspects, as they are involved in mental processes. Limits for an algorithmic theory of the mind-body problem suggested by this study are formally similar to other intrinsic limits of the scientific method such as quantum indeterminacy and mathematical undecidability which are also related to self-referential operations. At the metatheoretical level, hard sciences, despite their reliability, universality and objectivity, depend on metatheoretical presuppositions which allow for multiple philosophical interpretations.
Socioeconomic inequalities are functions not only of intrinsic differences between persons or groups, but also of the dynamics of their interactions. Inequalities can arise and become stabilized if there are advantages (such as generalized wealth including “human capital”) which are self-enhancing, whereas depletion of limiting resources is widely distributed. A recent theory of biological pattern formation has been generalized, adapted and applied to deal with this process. Applications include models for the non-Gaussian distribution of personal income and wealth, for overall economic growth in relation to inequalities and for effects of uncoupling strategies between developing and developed countries. Note added after publication: The equations (14) for the model of the income distribution, with its characteristic non-Gaussian extension towards higher incomes (fig.4), are closely related to the Fokker-Planck equation that is widely applied in many fields of physics.
Aggregates of previously isolated cells of Hydra are capable, under suitable solvant conditions, of regeneration forming complete animals. In a first stage, ecto- and endodermal cells sort out, producing the bilayered hollow structure characteristic of Hydra tissue; thereafter, heads are formed (even if the original cell preparation contained no head cells), eventually leading to the separation of normal animals with head, body column and foot. Hydra appears to be the highest type of organism that allows for regeneration of the entire structure from random cell aggregates. The system is particularly useful for studying cell interactions, tissue polarity, pattern formation, and cell differentiation.
The paper addresses the formation of striking patterns within originally near-homogenous tissue, the process prototypical for embryology, and represented in particularly puristic form by cut sections of hydra regenerating a complete animal with head and foot. Essential requirements are autocatalytic, self-enhancing activation, combined with inhibitory or depletion effects of wider range - “lateral inhibition”. Not only de-novo-pattern formation, but also well known, striking features of developmental regulation such as induction, inhibition, and proportion regulation can be explained on this basis. The theory provides a mathematical recipe for the construction of molecular models with criteria for the necessary non-linear interactions. It has since been widely applied to different developmental processes.
Die volle Anwendbarkeit der Physik auf die Biologie des menschlichen Gehirns bedeutet nicht notwendig, dass es ein finitistisches und zugleich vollständiges, algorithmisches Verfahren der Korrelation mentaler mit physikalischen Zuständen geben kann. Vielmehr gibt es Gründe für die Hypothese, dass eine umfassende Theorie der psychophysischen Beziehung prinzipiell unmöglich sein könnte. Diese Auffassung verbindet die Universalität der Physik mit der logischen Begrenztheit des menschlichen Denkens (z. B. in Bezug auf sich selbst) und betrachtet Bewusstsein - die ursprünglichste menschliche Erfahrung - nicht als Randphänomen. ++++ Die Zeitschrift RATIO erschien bis 1987 in einer deutschen und in einer englischen Ausgabe. Die englische Version des Artikels lautet: A. Gierer, The physical foundations of biology and the problems of psychophysics. RATIO XII, No. 1, 1970. S. 47-64.